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<title>Modality (semantics)</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Modality (semantics)</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the closely related grammatical category, see <a href="Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">Grammatical mood</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:18em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:110%"><a href="Grammatical_category" title="Grammatical category">Grammatical features</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related to nouns</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Dative_construction" title="Dative construction">Dative construction</a></li>

<li><a href="Dative_shift" title="Dative shift">Dative shift</a></li>

<li><a href="Quirky_subject" title="Quirky subject">Quirky subject</a></li>

<li><a href="Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a></li>

<li><a href="Comitative_case" title="Comitative case">Comitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a>

<ul><li><a href="Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Construct_state" title="Construct state">Construct state</a></li>

<li>Countability

<ul><li><a href="Count_noun" title="Count noun">Count noun</a></li>

<li><a href="Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective noun</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">Gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Genitive_construction" title="Genitive construction">Genitive construction</a>

<ul><li><a href="Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">Possession</a></li>

<li><a href="Suffixaufnahme" title="Suffixaufnahme">Suffixaufnahme (case stacking)</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Noun_class" title="Noun class">Noun class</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Number</a>

<ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Singular</li><li><a href="Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">Dual</a></li><li><a href="Plural" title="Plural">Plural</a></li></ul></div></li>

<li><a href="Singulative_number" title="Singulative number">Singulative-Collective-Plurative</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Specificity_(linguistics)" title="Specificity (linguistics)">Specificity</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related to verbs</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Associated_motion" title="Associated motion">Associated motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Clusivity" title="Clusivity">Clusivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">Conjugation</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">Person</a></li>

<li><a href="Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a>

<ul><li><a href="Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">Grammatical aspect</a></li>

<li><a href="Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">Lexical aspect (Aktionsart)</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">Tense</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Voice_(grammar)" title="Voice (grammar)">Voice</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General features</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Affect_(linguistics)" title="Affect (linguistics)">Affect</a></li>

<li><a href="Boundedness_(linguistics)" title="Boundedness (linguistics)">Boundedness</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparison (grammar)">Comparison (degree)</a></li>

<li><a href="Egophoricity" title="Egophoricity">Egophoricity</a></li>

<li><a href="Pluractionality" title="Pluractionality">Pluractionality</a> (verbal number)</li>

<li><a href="Honorifics_(linguistics)" title="Honorifics (linguistics)">Honorifics (politeness)</a></li>

<li><a href="Affirmation_and_negation" title="Affirmation and negation">Polarity</a></li>

<li><a href="Reciprocal_construction" title="Reciprocal construction">Reciprocity</a>

<ul><li><a href="Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive pronoun</a></li>

<li><a href="Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive verb</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Syntax relationships</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Argument_(linguistics)" title="Argument (linguistics)">Argument</a>

<ul><li><a href="Transitivity_(grammar)" title="Transitivity (grammar)">Transitivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Valency_(linguistics)" title="Valency (linguistics)">Valency</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Branching_(linguistics)" title="Branching (linguistics)">Branching</a></li>

<li><a href="Serial_verb_construction" title="Serial verb construction">Serial verb construction</a></li>

<li>Traditional grammar

<ul><li><a href="Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">Predicate</a></li>

<li><a href="Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">Subject</a></li>

<li><a href="Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">Object</a></li>

<li><a href="Adjunct_(grammar)" title="Adjunct (grammar)">Adjunct</a></li>

<li><a href="Predicative_expression" title="Predicative expression">Predicative</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Semantics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Contrast_(linguistics)" title="Contrast (linguistics)">Contrast</a></li>

<li><a href="Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Thematic_relation" title="Thematic relation">Thematic relation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Agent_(grammar)" title="Agent (grammar)">Agent</a></li>

<li><a href="Patient_(grammar)" title="Patient (grammar)">Patient</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Topic_and_comment" title="Topic and comment">Topic and Comment</a>

<ul><li><a href="Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Volition_(linguistics)" title="Volition (linguistics)">Volition</a></li>

<li><a href="Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content vlist" style="padding:.3em; text-align:left;">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Phenomena</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">Agreement</a>

<ul><li><a href="Polypersonal_agreement" title="Polypersonal agreement">Polypersonal agreement</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Declension" title="Declension">Declension</a></li>

<li><a href="Empty_category" title="Empty category">Empty category</a></li>

<li><a href="Incorporation_(linguistics)" title="Incorporation (linguistics)">Incorporation</a></li>

<li><a href="Inflection" title="Inflection">Inflection</a></li>

<li><a href="Markedness" title="Markedness">Markedness</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

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<p>In <a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> and <a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <b>modality</b> refers to the ways language can express various relationships to reality or truth. For instance, a modal expression may convey that something is likely, desirable, or permissible. Quintessential modal expressions include <a href="Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">modal auxiliaries</a> such as "could", "should", or "must"; <a href="Modal_adverbs" title="Modal adverbs">modal adverbs</a> such as "possibly" or "necessarily"; and <a href="Modal_adjective" title="Modal adjective">modal adjectives</a> such as "conceivable" or "probable". However, modal components have been identified in the meanings of countless natural language expressions, including <a href="Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">counterfactuals</a>, <a href="Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">propositional attitudes</a>, <a href="Evidentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidentials">evidentials</a>, <a href="Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habituals</a>, and generics.

</p><p>Modality has been intensely studied from a variety of perspectives. Within linguistics, <a href="Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">typological</a> studies have traced crosslinguistic variation in the strategies used to mark modality, with a particular focus on its interaction with <a href="Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">tense–aspect–mood marking</a>. Theoretical linguists have sought to analyze both the propositional content and discourse effects of modal expressions using formal tools derived from <a href="Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal logic</a>. Within philosophy, linguistic modality is often seen as a window into broader metaphysical notions of necessity and possibility.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Force_and_flavor">Force and flavor</h2></div>

<p>Modal expressions come in different categories called <i>flavors</i>. Flavors differ in how the possibilities they discuss relate to reality. For instance, an expression like "might" is said to have <a href="Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">epistemic flavor</a>, since it discusses possibilities compatible with some body of knowledge. An expression like "obligatory" is said to have <a href="Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">deontic flavor</a>, since it discusses possibilities which are required given the laws or norms obeyed in reality.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 47">: 47 </span></sup>

</p>

<dl><dd>(1) Agatha <i>must</i> be the murderer. (expressing epistemic modality)</dd>

<dd>(2) Agatha <i>must</i> go to jail. (expressing deontic modality)</dd></dl>

<p>The sentence in (1) might be spoken by someone who has decided that all of the relevant facts in a particular murder investigation point to the conclusion that Agatha was the murderer, even though it may or may not actually be the case. The 'must' in this sentence thus expresses epistemic modality: "'for all we know', Agatha must be the murderer", where 'for all we know' is relative to some knowledge the speakers possess. In contrast, (2) might be spoken by someone who has decided that, according to some standard of conduct, Agatha has committed a vile crime, and therefore the correct course of action is to jail Agatha.

</p><p>In classic formal approaches to <b>linguistic modality</b>, an utterance expressing modality is one that can always roughly be paraphrased to fit the following template:

</p>

<dl><dd>(3) According to [a set of rules, wishes, beliefs,...] it is [necessary, possible] that [the main proposition] is the case.</dd></dl>

<p>The set of propositions which forms the basis of evaluation is called the <b>modal base</b>. The result of the evaluation is called the <b>modal force</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 649">: 649 </span></sup> For example, the utterance in (4) expresses that, according to what the speaker has observed, it is necessary to conclude that John has a rather high income:

</p>

<dl><dd>(4) John must be earning a lot of money.</dd></dl>

<p>The modal base here is the knowledge of the speaker, the modal force is necessity. By contrast, (5) could be paraphrased as 'Given his abilities, the strength of his teeth, etc., it is possible for John to open a beer bottle with his teeth'. Here, the modal base is defined by a subset of John's abilities, the modal force is possibility.

</p>

<dl><dd>(5) John can open a beer bottle with his teeth.</dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formal_semantics">Formal semantics</h2></div>

<p>Linguistic modality has been one of the central concerns in <a href="Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">formal semantics</a> and <a href="Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">philosophical logic</a>. Research in these fields has led to a variety of accounts of the <a href="Proposition" title="Proposition">propositional content</a> and conventional discourse effects of modal expressions. The predominant approaches in these fields are based on <a href="Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal logic</a>. In these approaches, modal expressions such as <i>must</i> and <i>can</i> are analyzed as <a href="Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">quantifiers</a> over a set of possible worlds. In classical modal logic, this set is identified as the set of worlds <a href="Accessibility_relation" title="Accessibility relation">accessible</a> from the world of evaluation. Since the seminal work of <a href="Angelika_Kratzer" title="Angelika Kratzer">Angelika Kratzer</a>, formal semanticists have adopted a more finely grained notion of this set as determined by two <i>conversational background functions</i> called the <i>modal base</i> and <i>ordering source</i> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 79–90">: 79–90 </span></sup>

</p><p>For an epistemic modal like English <i>must</i> or <i>might</i>, this set is understood to contain exactly those worlds compatible with the knowledge that the speaker has in the actual world. Assume for example that the speaker of sentence (4) above knows that John just bought a new luxury car and has rented a huge apartment. The speaker also knows that John is an honest person with a humble family background and doesn't play the lottery. The set of accessible worlds is then the set of worlds in which all these propositions which the speaker knows about John are true. The notions of <b>necessity</b> and <b>possibility</b> are then defined along the following lines: A proposition <i>P</i> follows necessarily from the set of accessible worlds, if all accessible worlds are part of <i>P</i> (that is, if <i>p</i> is true in all of these worlds).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 80">: 80 </span></sup> Applied to the example in (4) this would mean that in all the worlds which are defined by the speaker's knowledge about John, it is the case that John earns a lot of money (assuming there is no other explanation for John's wealth). In a similar way a proposition <i>p</i> is possible according to the set of accessible worlds (i.e. the modal base), if some of these worlds are part of <i>P</i>.

</p><p>Recent work has departed from this picture in a variety of ways. In <a href="Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">dynamic semantics</a>, modals are analyzed as <i>tests</i> which check whether their prejacent is compatible with (or follows from) the information in the conversational common ground. Probabilistic approaches motivated by gradable modal expressions provide a semantics which appeals to speaker credence in the prejacent. Illocutionary approaches assume a sparser view of modals' propositional content and look to conventional discourse effects to explain some of the nuances of modals' use.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammatical_expression_of_modality">Grammatical expression of modality</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbal_morphology">Verbal morphology</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">Grammatical mood</a></div>

<p>In many languages modal categories are expressed by verbal morphology – that is, by alterations in the form of the verb. If these verbal markers of modality are obligatory in a language, they are called <a href="Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood"><i>mood</i></a> markers. Well-known examples of moods in some European languages are referred to as <a href="Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a>, <a href="Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">conditional</a>, and <a href="Indicative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative mood">indicative</a> as illustrated below with examples from <a href="French_language" title="French language">French</a>, all three with the verb <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">avoir</i></span> 'to have'. As in most <a href="Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard European</a> languages, the shape of the verb conveys not only information about modality, but also about other categories such as <a href="Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a> and <a href="Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a> of the <a href="Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>.

</p>

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</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(6)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Je</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">doute</p><p style="margin: 0px;">doubt</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">que</p><p style="margin: 0px;">that</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vous</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>ayez</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">have.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="subjunctive mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SJV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">raison.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">right</p></div><p style="display: none;">Je doute que vous <b>ayez</b> raison.</p><p style="display: none;">1SG doubt that 2PL have.2PL.SJV right</p><p style="clear: left;">'I doubt that you're right.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(7)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Si</p><p style="margin: 0px;">If</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">c'était</p><p style="margin: 0px;">this-was</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vrai,</p><p style="margin: 0px;">true</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">on</p><p style="margin: 0px;">one</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">l'<b>aurait</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">it-have.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="conditional mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">COND</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">seen</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sur</p><p style="margin: 0px;">on</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">CNN</p><p style="margin: 0px;">CNN‍</p></div><p style="display: none;">Si c'était vrai, on l'<b>aurait</b> vu sur CNN</p><p style="display: none;">If this-was true one it-have.SG.COND seen on CNN‍</p><p style="clear: left;">'If this were true, one would have seen it on CNN.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">(8)</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Il</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>a</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">have.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="indicative mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IND</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">raison</p><p style="margin: 0px;">right</p></div><p style="display: none;">Il <b>a</b> raison</p><p style="display: none;">3SG have.3SG.IND right</p><p style="clear: left;">'He's right.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div>

</div>

<p>An example for a non-European language with a similar encoding of modality is <a href="Manam_language" title="Manam language">Manam</a>. Here, a verb is prefixed by a <a href="Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> which encodes number and person of the subject. These prefixes come in two versions, <i>realis</i> and <i>irrealis</i>. Which one is chosen depends on whether the verb refers to an actual past or present event (realis), or merely to a possible or imagined event (irrealis).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Auxiliaries">Auxiliaries</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">Modal verb</a></div>

<p>Modal <a href="Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verbs</a>, such as the English words <i>may, can, must, ought, will, shall, need, dare, might, could, would,</i> and <i>should</i>, are often used to express modality, especially in the <a href="Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a>.

</p><p>Ability, desirability, permission, obligation, and probability can all be exemplified by the usage of auxiliary modal verbs in English:

</p>

<dl><dd><i>Ability</i>: I <b>can</b> ride a bicycle (in the present); I <b>could</b> ride a bicycle (in the past)</dd></dl>

<dl><dd><i>Desirability</i>: I <b>should</b> go; I <b>ought</b> to go</dd></dl>

<dl><dd><i>Permission</i>: I <b>may</b> go</dd></dl>

<dl><dd><i>Obligation</i>: I <b>must</b> go</dd></dl>

<dl><dd><i>Likelihood</i>: He <b>might</b> be there; He <b>may</b> be there; He <b>must</b> be there</dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexical_expression">Lexical expression</h3></div>

<p><a href="Verb" title="Verb">Verbs</a> such as "want," "need," or "belong" can be used to express modality <a href="Lexical_(semiotics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical (semiotics)">lexically</a>, as can <a href="Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbs</a>.

</p>

<dl><dd>(9) It <i>belongs</i> in a museum!</dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3></div>

<p>Complementizers (e.g. Russian) and conjunctions (e.g. <a href="Central_Pomo_language" title="Central Pomo language">Central Pomo</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) can be used to convey modality.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Angelika_Kratzer" title="Angelika Kratzer">Angelika Kratzer</a></li>

<li><a href="Counterfactuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactuals">Counterfactuals</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li>

<li><a href="Frank_R._Palmer" title="Frank R. Palmer">Frank R. Palmer</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_choice_inference" title="Free choice inference">Free choice inference</a></li>

<li><a href="Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">Modal logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Modal_subordination" title="Modal subordination">Modal subordination</a></li>

<li><a href="Modality_(semiotics)" title="Modality (semiotics)">Modality (semiotics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li>

<li><a href="Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li>

<li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:English_modal_adverbs" class="extiw external" title="wikt:Category:English modal adverbs">English modal adverbs</a> at Wiktionary</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFPortner2009" class="citation book cs1">Portner, Paul (2009). <i>Modality</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-929242-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kratzer, A. (1991). Modality. In: von Stechow, A. & Wunderlich, D. (Eds.) Semantics: An International Handbook of Contemporary Research. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kaufmann, S.; Condoravdi, C. & Harizanov, V. (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181223121024/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e1c0/a81b02d71384ea679037e5cdcd83c8e4eacd.pdf">Formal approaches to modality</a>. Formal approaches to modality. In: Frawley, W. (Ed.). The Expression of Modality. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see: Elliott, Jennifer R. (2000). Realis and irrealis: Forms and concepts of the grammaticalisation of reality. In: Linguistic Typology (Vol. 4, pp. 55-90).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mithun, M. (1995). On the Relativity of Irreality. In: Bybee, J. & Fleischman, S. (Eds.) Modality in Grammar and Discourse John Benjamins</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Asher, R. E. (ed.), <i>The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics</i> (pp. 2535–2540). Oxford: Pergamon Press.</li>

<li>Blakemore, D. (1994). <i>Evidence and modality</i>. In R. E. Asher (Ed.), <i>The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics</i> (pp. 1183–1186). Oxford: Pergamon Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-08-035943-4</bdi>.</li>

<li>Bybee, Joan; Perkins, Revere, & Pagliuca, William (1994). <i>The evolution of grammar: Tense, aspect, and modality in the languages of the world</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li>

<li>Calbert, J. P. (1975). <i>Toward the semantics of modality</i>. In J. P. Calbert & H. Vater (Eds.), <i>Aspekte der Modalität</i>. Tübingen: Gunter Narr.</li>

<li>Callaham, Scott N. (2010). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=19oJcrBd57wC">Modality and the Biblical Hebrew Infinitive Absolute</a></i>. Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 71. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.</li>

<li><cite id="chungTimberlake1985">Chung, Sandra; & Timberlake, Alan (1985). <i>Tense, aspect and mood</i>. In T. Shopen (Ed.), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iz4HQmlj6v8C">Language typology and syntactic description: Grammatical categories and the lexicon</a></i> (Vol. 3, pp. 202-258). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite></li>

<li>Kratzer, A. (1981). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.ox.ac.uk/~sfop0776/KratzerNotional.pdf">The notional category of modality</a></i>. In H.-J. Eikmeyer & H. Rieser (Eds.), <i>Words, worlds, and contexts: New approaches in word semantics</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.</li>

<li><a href="Frank_R._Palmer" title="Frank R. Palmer">Palmer, F. R.</a> (1979). <i>Modality and the English modals</i>. London: Longman.</li>

<li>Palmer, F. R. (1994). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xKUvDFTARR8C">Mood and modality</a></i>. Cambridge Univ. Press. Second edition 2001.</li>

<li>Saeed, John I. (2003). <i>Sentence semantics 1: Situations: Modality and evidentiality</i>. In J. I Saeed, <i>Semantics</i> (2nd. ed) (Sec. 5.3, pp. 135–143). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-631-22692-3</bdi>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-631-22693-1</bdi>.</li>

<li>Sweetser, E. E. (1982). <i>Root and epistemic modality: Causality in two worlds</i>. <i>Berkeley Linguistic Papers</i>, <i>8</i>, 484–507.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051220125553/http://www.hku.hk/linguist/program/semantics6.html">Modality and Evidentiality</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://glossary.sil.org/term/mood-and-modality">What is mood and modality?</a> SIL International, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://glossary.sil.org">Glossary of linguistic terms</a>.</li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Linguistic_modalities_and_grammatical_moods137" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Linguistic_modalities_and_grammatical_moods137" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> and <a href="Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">grammatical moods</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Realis_mood" title="Realis mood">Realis</a><br><i>(what is)</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Realis_mood#Other" title="Realis mood">Indicative/declarative</a></li>

<li><a href="Aggressive_mood" title="Aggressive mood">Aggressive</a></li>

<li><a href="Realis_mood#Other" title="Realis mood">Energetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidential</a> (<a href="Sensory_evidential_mood" title="Sensory evidential mood">Sensory</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Gnomic_aspect" title="Gnomic aspect">Generic/gnomic</a></li>

<li><a href="Mirative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirative mood">Mirative</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Irrealis_mood" title="Irrealis mood">Irrealis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic</a><br><i>(what should be)</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Benedictive_mood" title="Benedictive mood"> Benedictive</a></li>

<li><b><a href="Commissive" class="mw-redirect" title="Commissive">Commissive</a></b> <i>(promises, threats)</i></li>

<li><b><a href="Directive_moods" class="mw-redirect" title="Directive moods">Directive</a></b> <i>(commands, requests, requirements)</i></li>

<li><a href="Debitive_mood" title="Debitive mood">Debitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Deliberative_mood" title="Deliberative mood">Deliberative</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_modality" title="Dynamic modality">Dynamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Hortative" title="Hortative">Hortative (+ subtypes)</a></li>

<li><a href="Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">Imperative</a></li>

<li><a href="Injunctive_mood" title="Injunctive mood">Injunctive</a></li>

<li><a href="Jussive_mood" title="Jussive mood">Jussive</a></li>

<li><a href="Necessitative_mood" title="Necessitative mood">Necessitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Permissive_mood" title="Permissive mood">Permissive</a></li>

<li><a href="Precative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Precative mood">Precative</a></li>

<li><a href="Prohibitive_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibitive mood">Prohibitive</a></li>

<li><a href="Propositive_mood" title="Propositive mood">Propositive</a></li>

<li><b><a href="Volitive_modality" title="Volitive modality">Volitive</a></b> <i>(hopes, wishes, fears)</i></li>

<li><a href="Desiderative_mood" title="Desiderative mood">Desiderative</a></li>

<li><a href="Imprecative_mood" title="Imprecative mood">Imprecative</a></li>

<li><a href="Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">Optative</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic</a><br><i>(what may be)</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i>(inferences, possibilities, questions, etc.)</i></li>

<li><a href="Alethic_modality" title="Alethic modality">Alethic</a></li>

<li><a href="Assumptive_mood" title="Assumptive mood">Assumptive</a></li>

<li><a href="Deductive_mood" title="Deductive mood">Deductive</a></li>

<li><a href="Dubitative_mood" title="Dubitative mood">Dubitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypothetical_mood" title="Hypothetical mood">Hypothetical</a></li>

<li><a href="Inferential_mood" title="Inferential mood">Inferential/renarrative/oblique</a></li>

<li><a href="Interrogative" title="Interrogative">Interrogative</a></li>

<li><a href="Potential_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Potential mood">Potential</a></li>

<li><a href="Speculative_mood" title="Speculative mood">Speculative</a></li>

<li><a href="Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">Subjunctive</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependent circumstances<br><i>(what would be)</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">Conditional</a></li>

<li><a href="Eventive_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Eventive mood">Eventive</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)78" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)78" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li>

<li><a href="Denotation" title="Denotation">Denotation</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_entailment" title="Linguistic entailment">Entailment</a></li>

<li><a href="Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">Extension</a></li>

<li><a href="Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Generalized quantifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_form_(linguistics)" title="Logical form (linguistics)">Logical form</a></li>

<li><a href="Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li>

<li><a href="Scope_(formal_semantics)" title="Scope (formal semantics)">Scope</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li>

<li><a href="Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">Truth conditions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora</a></li>

<li><a href="Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li>

<li><a href="Binding_(linguistics)" title="Binding (linguistics)">Binding</a></li>

<li><a href="Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">Conditionals</a></li>

<li><a href="Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li>

<li><a href="Disjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunction">Disjunction</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li>

<li><a href="Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li>

<li><a href="Indexicality" title="Indexicality">Indexicality</a></li>

<li><a href="Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">Lexical semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Negation" title="Negation">Negation</a></li>

<li><a href="Propositional_attitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional attitudes">Propositional attitudes</a></li>

<li><a href="Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">Quantification</a></li>

<li><a href="Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Antecedent-contained_deletion" title="Antecedent-contained deletion">Antecedent-contained deletion</a></li>

<li><a href="Cataphora" title="Cataphora">Cataphora</a></li>

<li><a href="Coercion_(linguistics)" title="Coercion (linguistics)">Coercion</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservativity" title="Conservativity">Conservativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Counterfactuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactuals">Counterfactuals</a></li>

<li><a href="Crossover_effects" title="Crossover effects">Crossover effects</a></li>

<li><a href="Cumulativity_(linguistics)" title="Cumulativity (linguistics)">Cumulativity</a></li>

<li><a href="De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">De dicto and de re</a></li>

<li><a href="Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic modality</a></li>

<li><a href="Discourse_relation" title="Discourse relation">Discourse relations</a></li>

<li><a href="Donkey_anaphora" class="mw-redirect" title="Donkey anaphora">Donkey anaphora</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic modality</a></li>

<li><a href="Exhaustivity" title="Exhaustivity">Exhaustivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Faultless_disagreement" title="Faultless disagreement">Faultless disagreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_choice_inference" title="Free choice inference">Free choice inferences</a></li>

<li><a href="Givenness" title="Givenness">Givenness</a></li>

<li><a href="Homogeneity_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneity (linguistics)">Homogeneity (linguistics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Hurford_disjunction" title="Hurford disjunction">Hurford disjunction</a></li>

<li><a href="Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">Inalienable possession</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective modification</a></li>

<li><a href="Logophoricity" title="Logophoricity">Logophoricity</a></li>

<li><a href="Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Modal_subordination" title="Modal subordination">Modal subordination</a></li>

<li><a href="Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">Opaque contexts</a></li>

<li><a href="Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">Performatives</a></li>

<li><a href="Polarity_item" title="Polarity item">Polarity items</a></li>

<li><a href="Privative_adjective" title="Privative adjective">Privative adjectives</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantificational_variability_effect" title="Quantificational variability effect">Quantificational variability effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Responsive_predicate" title="Responsive predicate">Responsive predicate</a></li>

<li><a href="Rising_declarative" title="Rising declarative">Rising declaratives</a></li>

<li><a href="Scalar_implicature" title="Scalar implicature">Scalar implicature</a></li>

<li><a href="Sloppy_identity" title="Sloppy identity">Sloppy identity</a></li>

<li><a href="Subsective_modifier" title="Subsective modifier">Subsective modification</a></li>

<li><a href="Subtrigging" title="Subtrigging">Subtrigging</a></li>

<li><a href="Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Temperature_paradox" title="Temperature paradox">Temperature paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formal systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alternative_semantics" title="Alternative semantics">Alternative semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Categorial_grammar" title="Categorial grammar">Categorial grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Combinatory_categorial_grammar" title="Combinatory categorial grammar">Combinatory categorial grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory (DRT)</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Glue_semantics" title="Glue semantics">Glue semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Intensional_logic" title="Intensional logic">Intensional logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Lambda_calculus" title="Lambda calculus">Lambda calculus</a></li>

<li><a href="Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li>

<li><a href="Montague_grammar" title="Montague grammar">Montague grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Segmented_discourse_representation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmented discourse representation theory">Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)</a></li>

<li><a href="Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Supervaluationism" title="Supervaluationism">Supervaluationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li>

<li><a href="Context_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Context set">Context set</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuation" title="Continuation">Continuation</a></li>

<li><a href="Conversational_scoreboard" title="Conversational scoreboard">Conversational scoreboard</a></li>

<li><a href="Downward_entailing" title="Downward entailing">Downward entailing</a></li>

<li><a href="Existential_closure" title="Existential closure">Existential closure</a></li>

<li><a href="Function_application" title="Function application">Function application</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaning_postulate" title="Meaning postulate">Meaning postulate</a></li>

<li><a href="Monad_(functional_programming)" title="Monad (functional programming)">Monads</a></li>

<li><a href="Plural_quantification" title="Plural quantification">Plural quantification</a></li>

<li><a href="Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantifier_raising" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier raising">Quantifier raising</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantization_(linguistics)" title="Quantization (linguistics)">Quantization</a></li>

<li><a href="Question_under_discussion" title="Question under discussion">Question under discussion</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li>

<li><a href="Squiggle_operator" title="Squiggle operator">Squiggle operator</a></li>

<li><a href="Strawson_entailment" title="Strawson entailment">Strawson entailment</a></li>

<li><a href="Strict_conditional" title="Strict conditional">Strict conditional</a></li>

<li><a href="Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">Type shifter</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">Cognitive semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">Formal grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Inferentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferentialism">Inferentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic_translation" title="Logic translation">Logic translation</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistics_wars" title="Linguistics wars">Linguistics wars</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Analytic_philosophy173" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Analytic_philosophy173" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of focus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Aretaic</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">Historical</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Performativity" title="Performativity">Performative</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li>

<li><a href="Deviant_logic" title="Deviant logic">Deviant</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li>

<li><a href="Paraconsistent_logic" title="Paraconsistent logic">Paraconsistent</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li>

<li><a href="First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">Predicate</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li>

<li><a href="Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Feminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Marxism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language</a></li>

<li><a href="Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li>

<li><a href="Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Scientific structuralism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense data</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytic_theology" title="Analytic theology">Analytic theology</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a> (<a href="Paradox_of_analysis" title="Paradox of analysis">paradox of analysis</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li>

<li><a href="Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">Counterfactual</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">Natural kind</a></li>

<li><a href="Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">Reflective equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a href="Supervenience" title="Supervenience">Supervenience</a></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modality33" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Actualism" title="Actualism">Actualism</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_possibility" title="Logical possibility">Possibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li>

<li><a href="Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">Realism</a></li>

<li><a href="Rigid_designator" title="Rigid designator">Rigid designator</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Keith_Donnellan" title="Keith Donnellan">Keith Donnellan</a></li>

<li><a href="Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li>

<li><a href="Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li>

<li><a href="Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a></li>

<li><a href="Giuseppe_Peano" title="Giuseppe Peano">Giuseppe Peano</a></li>

<li><a href="Russ_Shafer-Landau" title="Russ Shafer-Landau">Russ Shafer-Landau</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li>

<li><a href="Barry_Stroud" title="Barry Stroud">Barry Stroud</a></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Australian_realism" title="Australian realism">Australian realism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li>

<li><a href="J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li>

<li><a href="J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cambridge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arif_Ahmed_(philosopher)" title="Arif Ahmed (philosopher)">Arif Ahmed</a></li>

<li><a href="C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Charlie Broad</a></li>

<li><a href="Casimir_Lewy" title="Casimir Lewy">Casimir Lewy</a></li>

<li><a href="Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a></li>

<li><a href="G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li>

<li><a href="Graham_Priest" title="Graham Priest">Graham Priest</a></li>

<li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li>

<li><a href="Frank_P._Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Oxford</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li>

<li><a href="J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li>

<li><a href="Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li>

<li><a href="Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li>

<li><a href="Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li>

<li><a href="Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li>

<li><a href="P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li>

<li><a href="Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li>

<li><a href="Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Ernest_Nagel" title="Ernest Nagel">Ernest Nagel</a></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li>

<li><a href="Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li>

<li><a href="Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Waismann" title="Friedrich Waismann">Friedrich Waismann</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Harvard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li>

<li><a href="Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li>

<li><a href="Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li>

<li><a href="Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notre Dame</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pittsburgh_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh School">Pittsburgh School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a></li>

<li><a href="Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolf_Gr%C3%BCnbaum" title="Adolf Grünbaum">Adolf Grünbaum</a></li>

<li><a href="John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruth_Millikan" title="Ruth Millikan">Ruth Millikan</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li>

<li><a href="Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li>

<li><a href="Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li>

<li><a href="Morton_White" title="Morton White">Morton White</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Princeton</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a></li>

<li><a href="Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li>

<li><a href="Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</a></li>

<li><a href="Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li>

<li><a href="Nathan_Salmon" title="Nathan Salmon">Nathan Salmon</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="James_F._Conant" title="James F. Conant">James F. Conant</a></li>

<li><a href="Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li>

<li><a href="Cora_Diamond" title="Cora Diamond">Cora Diamond</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reformed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li>

<li><a href="Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Stanford_School" title="Stanford School">Stanford School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nancy_Cartwright_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Cartwright (philosopher)">Nancy Cartwright</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Galison" title="Peter Galison">Peter Galison</a></li>

<li><a href="Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li>

<li><a href="Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Lw%C3%B3w%E2%80%93Warsaw_school" title="Lwów–Warsaw school">Lwow–Warsaw</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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